Because it is now almost axiomatic for American school textbooks to whitewash all things Islamic (see here for example), it may be instructive to examine one of those aspects that are regularly distorted: the Muslim conquests.
Few events of history are so well documented and attested to as are these conquests, which commenced soon after the death of the Muslim prophet Muhammad (632) and tapered off circa 750. Large swathes of the Old World—from the India in the east, to Spain in the west—were conquered and consolidated by the sword of Islam during this time, with more after (e.g., the Ottoman conquests).
By the standards of history, the reality of these conquests is unassailable, for history proper concerns itself with primary sources; and the Islamic conquests are thoroughly documented. More importantly, the overwhelming majority of primary source materials we rely on do not come from non-Muslims, who might be accused of bias. Rather, the foremost historians bequeathing to posterity thousands of pages of source materials documenting the Islamic conquests were not only Muslims themselves; they were—and still are—regarded by today’s Muslims as pious and trustworthy scholars (generically, the ulema).
Among the most authoritative books devoted to recounting the conquests are: Ibn Ishaq’s (d. 767) Sira (“Life of Muhammad”), the oldest biography of Muhammad; Waqidi’s (d. circa. 820) Maghazi (“Military Campaigns [of the Prophet]”); Baladhuri’s (d. 892) Futuh al-Buldan (“Conquests of the Nations”); and Tabari’s (d.923) multi-volume Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, (“History of Prophets and Kings”), which is 40 volumes in the English translation.
Taken together, these accounts (which are primarily based on older accounts—oral and written—tracing back to Muhammad and his successors) provide what was once, and in the Muslim world still is, a famous story: that Allah had perfected religion (Islam) for all humanity; that he commanded his final prophet (Muhammad) and community (Muslims) to spread Islam to the world; and that the latter was/is to accept it either willingly or unwillingly (jihad).
It should be noted that contemporary non-Muslim accounts further validate the facts of the conquests. The writings of the Christian bishop of Jerusalem Sophronius (d.638), for instance, or the chronicles of the Byzantine historian Theophanes (d.758), to name a couple, make clear that Muslims conquered much of what is today called the “Muslim world.”
According to the Muslim historical tradition, the majority of non-Muslim peoples of the Old World, not desiring to submit to Islam or its laws (Sharia), fought back, though most were eventually defeated and subsumed.
The first major conquest, renowned for its brutality, occurred in Arabia itself, immediately after Muhammad’s death in 632. Many tribes which had only nominally accepted Islam’s authority, upon Muhammad’s death, figured they could break away; however, Muhammad’s successor and first caliph, or successor, Abu Bakr, would have none of that, and proclaimed a jihad against these apostates, known in Arabic as the “Ridda Wars” (or Apostasy Wars). According to the aforementioned historians, tens of thousands of Arabs were put to the sword until their tribes re-submitted to Islam.
The Ridda Wars ended around 634. To keep the Arab Muslims from quarreling, the next caliph, Omar, launched the Muslim conquests: Syria was conquered around 636, Egypt 641, Mesopotamia and the Persian Empire, 650. By the early 8th century, all of north Africa and Spain to the west, and the lands of central Asia and India to the east, were also brought under Islamic suzerainty.
The colorful accounts contained in the Muslim tradition are typified by constant warfare, which normally goes as follows: Muslims go to a new region and offer the inhabitants three choices: 1) submit (i.e., convert) to Islam; 2) live as second-class citizens, or “dhimmis,” paying special taxes and accepting several social debilitations; 3) fight to the death.
Centuries later, and partially due to trade, Islam came to be accepted by a few periphery peoples, mostly polytheists and animists, who followed no major religion (e.g., in Indonesia, Somalia), and who currently form the outer fringes of the Islamic world.
Ironically, these exceptions are now portrayed as the rule in America’s classrooms: many textbooks suggest or at least imply that most people who converted to Islam did so under no duress, but rather through peaceful contacts with merchants and traders; that they eagerly opted to convert to Islam for the religion’s intrinsic appeal, without noting the many debilitations conquered non-Muslims avoided—extra taxes, second-rate social status, enforced humiliation, etc.—by converting to Islam. In fact, in the first century, and due to these debilitations, many conquered peoples sought to convert to Islam only to be rebuffed by the caliphate, which preferred to keep them as subdued—and heavily taxed—subjects, not as Muslim equals.
Meanwhile, as U.S. textbooks equivocate about the Muslim conquests, in the schoolrooms of the Muslim world, the conquests are not only taught as a matter of course, but are glorified: their rapidity and decisiveness are regularly portrayed as evidence that Allah was in fact on the side of the Muslims (and will be again, so long as Muslims uphold their communal duty of waging jihad).
The dissimulation of how Islam was spread in the early centuries contained in Western textbook’s mirrors the way the word jihad, once inextricable to the conquests, has also been recast. Whereas the word jihad has throughout the centuries simply meant armed warfare on behalf of Islam, in recent years, American students have been taught the Sufi interpretation of jihad—Sufis make up perhaps one percent of the Islamic world and are often seen as heretics with aberrant interpretations—which portrays jihad as a “spiritual-struggle” against one’s vices.
Contrast this definition of jihad with that of an early edition of the venerable Encyclopaedia of Islam. Its opening sentence simply states, “The spread of Islam by arms is a religious duty upon Muslims in general.… Jihad must continue to be done until the whole world is under the rule of Islam.… Islam must completely be made over before the doctrine of jihad [warfare to spread Islam] can be eliminated.” Muslim legal manuals written in Arabic are even more explicit.
Likewise, the Islamic conquests narrated in the Muslim histories often mirror the doctrinal obligations laid out in Islam’s theological texts—the Koran and Hadith. Muslim historians often justify the actions of the early Islamic invaders by juxtaposing the jihad injunctions found in Islamic scriptures.
It should also be noted that, to Muslims, the Islamic conquests are seen as acts of altruism: they are referred to as futuh, which literally means “openings”—that is, the countries conquered were “opened” for the light of Islam to enter and guide its infidel inhabitants. Thus to Muslims, there is nothing to regret or apologize for concerning the conquests; they are seen as for the good of those who were conquered (i.e., the ancestors of today’s Muslims).
In closing, the fact of the Muslim conquests, by all standards of history, is indisputable. Accordingly, just as less than impressive aspects of Western and Christian history, such as the Inquisition or conquest of the Americas, are regularly taught in U.S. textbooks, so too should the Muslim conquests be taught, without apology or fear of being politically incorrect. This is especially so because it concerns history—which has a way of repeating itself when ignored, or worse, whitewashed.
I may be wrong, but I thought those who aren’t people of the book (Christians and Jews) didn’t have the choice to live as Dhimmis, but rather had to choose between conversion or death.
Professor Bernard Lewis says different, it seems you make reference to Islamic literature but you haven’t quoted anything from them other than give your own distorted opinion on the matters you have mentioned.
“It is sometimes said that the Islamic religion was spread by conquest. The statement is misleading, though the spread of Islam was to a large extent made possible by the parallel processes of conquest and colonization. The primary war aim of the conquerors was not to impose the Islamic faith by force. The Qur’ân is explicit on this point: ‘There is no compulsion in religion’ (2:256). This was usually interpreted to mean that those who profess a monotheist religion and revere scriptures recognized by Islam as earlier stages of divine revelation may be permitted to practice their religions under the conditions imposed by the Islamic state and law. For those who were not monotheists and possessed no recognized scriptures, the alternatives were harsher, but there were few if any such in the regions ruled by the early Arab conquerors. The conquered peoples were given various inducements, such as lower rates of taxation, to adopt Islam, but they were not compelled to do so.”
-Bernard Lewis, The Middle East
This absolutely flies in the face of all contemporary accounts now available to us regarding the Moslem conquest – mostly written by the Muslim conquerors themselves. To say there was no compulsion in religion is absolutely ludicrous – all sources agree that the Conquered were given three choices – 1. Convert to Islam and enjoy all the tremendous advantages; 2. Refuse to convert and be immediately executed + entire family sold into slavery; 3. Refuse to convert, but be a dhimmi with very limited legal and civil rights, but still required to perform military service and fill the ranks of Islamic armies PLUS pay a debilitating “tax” which ensured you were kept in poverty, and therefore powerless. In nearly every case, there is excellent documentation of a profound effort to resist the invaders, followed by slaughter, enslavement, looting and the three choices. I view with deep skepticism all recent historical scholarship published by American colleges and universities.
Right….Nice try, NOT. “They were not Compelled,” right, they had a “choice,” live as a slave with little with the possibility of death or convert to Islam. Some Choice!
REAL ISLAM & JIHAD
Early History of Peaceful Islam:
Islamic leaders and politicians constantly tell us in English that “Islam is a peaceful religion”, but one can’t help wondering if they would say it quite so often if they were absolutely sure it
was true.
In the following chronology, note how closely Islam’s inception is associated with war. From 623 to 777, a span of 154 years, there are 83 military conflicts involving the Muslims…. Muslims tell us Islam is a religion of peace, but all historical facts seem to discredit that claim rather convincingly.
Chronology of early Islam
570 – Birth of Muhammad in Mecca into the tribe of Quraish.
577 – Muhammad’s mother dies.
595 – Muhammad marries, starts to have children.
605 – Placement of Black Stone in Ka’aba.
610 – Mohammed, in a cave, hears an angel tell him that Allah is the only true God.
613 – Muhammad’s first public preaching of Islam at Mt. Hira.
Gets few converts.
615 – Muslims persecuted by the Quraysh.
619 – Marries Sau’da and Aisha
620 – Institution of five daily prayers .
622 – Muhammad immigrates from Mecca to Medina, gets more converts.
623 – Battle of Waddan
623 – Battle of Safwan
623 – Battle of Dul-‘Ashir
624 – Raids on caravans to fund the movement begin.
624 – Zakat becomes mandatory
624 – Battle of Badr
624 – Battle of Bani Salim
624 – Battle of Eid-ul-Fitr & Zakat-ul-Fitr
624 – Battle of Bani Qainuqa’
624 – Battle of Sawiq
624 – Battle of Ghatfan
624 – Battle of Bahran
625 – Battle of Uhud. 70 Muslims killed.
625 – Battle of Humra-ul-Asad
625 – Battle of Banu Nadir
625 – Battle of Dhatul-Riqa
626 – Battle of Badru-Ukhra
626 – Battle of Dumatul-Jandal
626 – Battle of Banu Mustalaq Nikah
627 – Battle of the Trench
627 – Battle of Ahzab
627 – Battle of Bani Qurayza
627 – Battle of Bani Lahyan
627 – Battle of Ghaiba
627 – Battle of Khaibar
628 – Muhammad signs treaty with Quraish. (The 628 Al-Hudaybiyya agreement, between the Prophet and the Meccan tribe of Quraish, was signed for a period of 10 years, which became, in Islamic tradition, the time limit for any agreement with non-Muslims. The agreement was broken after 18 months, Muhammad’s army then conquered Mecca)
630 – Muhammad conquers Mecca.
630 – Battle of Hunain.
630 – Battle of Tabuk
632 – Muhammad dies. The reign of the Caliphs begins.
632 – Abu-Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law, along with Umar, begin a military move to enforce Islam in Arabia.
633 – Battle at Oman
633 – Battle at Hadramaut.
633 – Battle of Kazima
633 – Battle of Walaja
633 – Battle of Ulleis
633 – Battle of Anbar
634 – Battle of Basra,
634 – Battle of Damascus
634 – Battle of Ajnadin.
634 – Death of Hadrat Abu Bakr. Hadrat Umar Farooq becomes the Caliph.
634 – Battle of Namaraq
634 – Battle of Saqatia.
635 – Battle of Bridge.
635 – Battle of Buwaib.
635 – Conquest of Damascus.
635 – Battle of Fahl.
636 – Battle of Yermuk.
636 – Battle of Qadsiyia.
636 – Conquest of Madain.
637 – Battle of Jalula.
638 – Battle of Yarmouk.
638 – The Muslims defeat the Romans and enter Jerusalem.
638 – Conquest of Jazirah.
639 – Conquest of Khuizistan and movement into Egypt.
641 – Battle of Nihawand
642 – Battle of Rayy in Persia
643 – Conquest of Azarbaijan
644 – Conquest of Fars
644 – Conquest of Kharan.
644 – Umar is murdered. Othman becomes the Caliph.
647 – Conquest of Cypress island.
644 – Uman dies, succeeded by Caliph Uthman.
648 – Byzantine campaign begins.
651 – Naval battle against Byzantines.
654 – Islam spreads into North Africa
656 – Uthman is murdered. Ali become Caliph.
658 – Battle of Nahrawan.
659 – Conquest of Egypt
661 – Ali is murdered.
662 – Egypt falls to Islam rule.
666 – Sicily is attacked by Muslims
677 – Siege of Constantinople
687 – Battle of Kufa
691 – Battle of Deir ul Jaliq
700 – Sufism takes root as a sect.
700 – Military campaigns in North Africa
702 – Battle of Deir ul Jamira
711 – Muslims invade Gibraltar
711 – Conquest of Spain
713 – Conquest of Multan
716 – Invasion of Constantinople
732 – Battle of Tours in France.
740 – Battle of the Nobles.
741 – Battle of Bagdoura in North Africa
744 – Battle of Ain al Jurr.
746 – Battle of Rupar Thutha
748 – Battle of Rayy.
749 – Battle of lsfahan
749 – Battle of Nihawand
750 – Battle of Zab
772 – Battle of Janbi in North Africa
777 – Battle of Saragossa in Spain
REAL ISLAM & JIHAD
Early History of Peaceful Islam:
Islamic leaders and politicians constantly tell us in English that “Islam is a peaceful religion”, but one can’t help wondering if they would say it quite so often if they were absolutely sure it
was true.
In the following chronology, note how closely Islam’s inception is associated with war. From 623 to 777, a span of 154 years, there are 83 military conflicts involving the Muslims…. Muslims tell us Islam is a religion of peace, but all historical facts seem to discredit that claim rather convincingly.
Chronology of early Islam
570 – Birth of Muhammad in Mecca into the tribe of Quraish.
577 – Muhammad’s mother dies.
595 – Muhammad marries, starts to have children.
605 – Placement of Black Stone in Ka’aba.
610 – Mohammed, in a cave, hears an angel tell him that Allah is the only true God.
613 – Muhammad’s first public preaching of Islam at Mt. Hira.
Gets few converts.
615 – Muslims persecuted by the Quraysh.
619 – Marries Sau’da and Aisha
620 – Institution of five daily prayers .
622 – Muhammad immigrates from Mecca to Medina, gets more converts.
623 – Battle of Waddan
623 – Battle of Safwan
623 – Battle of Dul-‘Ashir
624 – Raids on caravans to fund the movement begin.
624 – Zakat becomes mandatory
624 – Battle of Badr
624 – Battle of Bani Salim
624 – Battle of Eid-ul-Fitr & Zakat-ul-Fitr
624 – Battle of Bani Qainuqa’
624 – Battle of Sawiq
624 – Battle of Ghatfan
624 – Battle of Bahran
625 – Battle of Uhud. 70 Muslims killed.
625 – Battle of Humra-ul-Asad
625 – Battle of Banu Nadir
625 – Battle of Dhatul-Riqa
626 – Battle of Badru-Ukhra
626 – Battle of Dumatul-Jandal
626 – Battle of Banu Mustalaq Nikah
627 – Battle of the Trench
627 – Battle of Ahzab
627 – Battle of Bani Qurayza
627 – Battle of Bani Lahyan
627 – Battle of Ghaiba
627 – Battle of Khaibar
628 – Muhammad signs treaty with Quraish. (The 628 Al-Hudaybiyya agreement, between the Prophet and the Meccan tribe of Quraish, was signed for a period of 10 years, which became, in Islamic tradition, the time limit for any agreement with non-Muslims. The agreement was broken after 18 months, Muhammad’s army then conquered Mecca)
630 – Muhammad conquers Mecca.
630 – Battle of Hunain.
630 – Battle of Tabuk
632 – Muhammad dies. The reign of the Caliphs begins.
632 – Abu-Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law, along with Umar, begin a military move to enforce Islam in Arabia.
633 – Battle at Oman
633 – Battle at Hadramaut.
633 – Battle of Kazima
633 – Battle of Walaja
633 – Battle of Ulleis
633 – Battle of Anbar
634 – Battle of Basra,
634 – Battle of Damascus
634 – Battle of Ajnadin.
634 – Death of Hadrat Abu Bakr. Hadrat Umar Farooq becomes the Caliph.
634 – Battle of Namaraq
634 – Battle of Saqatia.
635 – Battle of Bridge.
635 – Battle of Buwaib.
635 – Conquest of Damascus.
635 – Battle of Fahl.
636 – Battle of Yermuk.
636 – Battle of Qadsiyia.
636 – Conquest of Madain.
637 – Battle of Jalula.
638 – Battle of Yarmouk.
638 – The Muslims defeat the Romans and enter Jerusalem.
638 – Conquest of Jazirah.
639 – Conquest of Khuizistan and movement into Egypt.
641 – Battle of Nihawand
642 – Battle of Rayy in Persia
643 – Conquest of Azarbaijan
644 – Conquest of Fars
644 – Conquest of Kharan.
644 – Umar is murdered. Othman becomes the Caliph.
647 – Conquest of Cypress island.
644 – Uman dies, succeeded by Caliph Uthman.
648 – Byzantine campaign begins.
651 – Naval battle against Byzantines.
654 – Islam spreads into North Africa
656 – Uthman is murdered. Ali become Caliph.
658 – Battle of Nahrawan.
659 – Conquest of Egypt
661 – Ali is murdered.
662 – Egypt falls to Islam rule.
666 – Sicily is attacked by Muslims
677 – Siege of Constantinople
687 – Battle of Kufa
691 – Battle of Deir ul Jaliq
700 – Sufism takes root as a sect.
700 – Military campaigns in North Africa
702 – Battle of Deir ul Jamira
711 – Muslims invade Gibraltar
711 – Conquest of Spain
713 – Conquest of Multan
716 – Invasion of Constantinople
732 – Battle of Tours in France.
740 – Battle of the Nobles.
741 – Battle of Bagdoura in North Africa
744 – Battle of Ain al Jurr.
746 – Battle of Rupar Thutha
748 – Battle of Rayy.
749 – Battle of lsfahan
749 – Battle of Nihawand
750 – Battle of Zab
772 – Battle of Janbi in North Africa
777 – Battle of Saragossa in Spain